Developer CD Series 1998 November: Tool Chest/Dev.CD Nov 98 TC.toast/Sample Code/Snippets/Development Tools & Languages/DTSCPlusLibrary/Tools/Recipes.C++

C/C++ Source or Header | 1993-01-14 | 31.6 KB | 2,394 lines | [TEXT/MPS ]

#############################################################################
Recipes for MPW C++      1.0
Kent Sandvik DTS        Sunday, June 14, 1992 15:37:54

Permission to republish this is granted, as long as the contents
are not modified/altered/shortened in any way without consulting the author first.

Place in MPW Folder, and put following line (example) in UserStartup:
    AddMenu    Special 'C++ Recipes/1'    'Open "{MPW}Recipes.C++"'
                                 ^ triggered from option-1

Please redirect any comments, bug reports and such to:
[e-mail] (Usenet, Internet)
KSAND           (AppleLink)
75300, 1331     (CompuServe)

References:
    C++ Programming Language (second edition), Bjarne Stroustrup
    Annotated C++ Reference Manual, Ellis & Stroustrup
    All kinds of private notes/hacks (Usenet comp.lang.c++, CompuServe)

Future plans:
    * more material, bug fixes, better explanations
    * 411 (template/lookup support), or something more hypertext:ish

Thanks!
    Johan Strandberg, Common Knowledge

#############################################################################




// C++ CLASS TEMPLATE
#include <stream.h>

class TFoo
{
public:
    TFoo();                                        // constructor
    ~TFoo();                                    // destructor

protected:
    long fField;
private:
};




// Method implementations
TFoo::TFoo()                                    // constructor
{
    cout << "inside TFoo constructor\n";
}


TFoo::~TFoo()                                    // destructor
{
    // empty for the moment
}




class TBar : public TFoo
{
public:
    TBar()
    {
        cout << "inside TBar constructor\n";
    }


    virtual void Member();
};



void TBar::Member()
{
    cout << "inside TBar::Member\n";
}




TBar* aBar;

main()
{
    aBar = new TBar;
    return 0;
}




// VOLATILE MACRO
#define VOLATILE(a) ((void) &a)



// GLOBAL SCOPE OPERATOR
int x;

void func()
{
    int x = 1;                                    // use local x
    ::x = 2;                                    // use global x
}



// void POINTERS - can be made to point at anything
void* malloc(unsigned size);                    // C style memory allocation
void free(void*);

void func()
{
    int* pi = (int*)malloc(10 * sizeof(int));
    char* pc = (char*)malloc(10);
    // ...
    free(pi);
    free(pc);
}






// POINTERS
int* pi;                                        // pointer to int
char** cpp;                                        // pointer to array to char
int(* vp)[10];                                    // pointer to array of 10 ints
int(* fp)(char,
          char*);                                // pointer to function taking
// (char, char*), returning int

char c1 = 'a';                                    // c1 contains 'a'
char* p = &c1;                                    // p contains address of c1
char c2 = *p;                                    // c2 contains 'a'

size_t strlen(char* p)
{
    size_t i = 0;
    while (*p++)
        i++;
    return i;
}



// FASTER POINTER STRING COMPARISON - produces better code on most platforms
int strlen(const char* p)
{
    register char* q = p;
    while (*q++)
        return q - p - 1;
}




// ARRAYS
float v[3];                                        // array of 3 floats
int a[3][5];                                    // 2-dimensional array of ints (3 times 5)
char* vpc[32];                                    // array of 32 char pointers

int v1[1] = {
             1, 2, 3, 4};                        // assigment of array elements



// POINTERS AND ARRAYS
char* p = &alpha[0];                            // make p point at start of alpha array
char* p = alpha;                                // same semantics!

extern "C"
int strlen(const char*);
void func()
{
    char v[] = "Jeff Steven"
              char* p = v;
    strlen(p);
    strlen(v);                                    // both gives same value
}




// STRUCTURES
struct address
{
    char* name;
    long number;
    char* street;
    char* town;
    char state[2];
    long zip;
};


address js;
js. name = "Jeff Sandvik";
js. number = 20200;


address js = {                                    // struct assignment
              "Jeff Sandvik", 20200, "Lucille Ave", "Cupertino", {'C', 'A'}, 95104};


void printAddress(address p)                    // struct pointer handling
{
    cout << p->name << '\n' << p->number << ' '
    << p->street << '\n' << p->town << '\n'
    << p->state[0] << p->state[1] << ' '
    << p->zip << '\n'
}



address current;

address setCurrent(address next)                // address handling
{
    address prev = current;
    current = next;
    return prev;
}


struct link
{                                                // struct self referencing
    link* previous;
    link* next;
};





// typedef
typedef char* Pchar;
Pchar p1, p2;
char p3 = p1;


// REFERENCES (&)
int i = 1;                                        // example
int& r = i;
int x = r;                                        // x = 1;
r = 2;                                            // i = 2;

void incr(int& a)
{
    a++;
}                                                // function call


void func()
{
    int x = 1;
    incr(x);                                    // x = 2;
}




// const
const int model = 100;
model = 200;                                    // error!

const char* pc = "abc";                            // const pc data
pc[3] = 'a';                                    // error!
pc = "def";                                        // ok

char* const cp = "abc";                            // constant pointer
cp[3] = 'a';                                    // ok
cp = "def";                                        // error!

const char* const pc "abc";                        // data and pointer constant

char* strcpy(char* p,
             const char* q);                    // can't modify q


// ENUMS
enum
{
    kRed, kBlue, kGreen
};                                                // enum list, kRed = 0, kBlue = 1...


enum
{
    kRed = 200, kBlue, kGreen = 300
};                                                // kBlue = 201


enum EColors
{
    kRed, kBlue, kGreen
};                                                // named enum


eColors returnColor();

eColors theColor;

switch (theColor){
    case kRed:
        // do something
        break;
    case kBlue:
        // do something
        break;
    case kGreen:
        // do something
        break;
    default:
        // do something
        break;
};

class foo
{
public:
    enum eColors
    {
        eRed, eBlue, eGreen
    };
    //...

};



myClass. fColor = foo::eRed;


// BITFIELDS
struct ASICReg {
    unsigned enable:     1;        // one bit
    unsigned page:        3;        // three bits
    unsigned :            1;        // unused
    unsigned mode:        2;        // two bits
    unsigned :            4;        // unused
    unsigned access:    1;        // one bit
    unsigned length:    1;
    unsigned non_res:    1;
};

ASICReg* SR = (sreg *)0xA800;                    // fictiv address, memory mapped I/O
// ...

if (SR->access)                    // true?
{
    // clean up the state
    SR->access = 0;
}


// UNIONS
struct entry {
char* name;
char type;                                        // tagged value for union
union
{
    char* stringValue;                            // char string     type = 's'
    int intValue;                                // or int variable type = 'i'
};


};

union foo
{                                                // named union
    int i;
    int* p;
};




// MODULO
const int RANGE = 100;
int i;

i%= RANGE;                                        // i is in the range 0...RANGE-1


// BITWISE LEFT SHIFT
int i = 0x8000;
i<<= 1;                                            // left shift one step


// BITWISE XOR
int i = 0x8000;
i^= 0x3000;                                        // note, no space between ^ and =!!!

// BITWISE OR
int i = 0x8000;
i|= 0x3000;

// BITWISE AND
int i = 0x8000;
i&= 0x3000;


// ERROR STREAMS
int numErrors;

double error(const char* s)
{
    cerr << "error: " << s << "\n";
    numErrors++;
    return 1;
}




// TYPE CONVERSION
int foo = 56;
float bar = float(foo);

char* p = (char*)0xA800;                        // typecast of address
typedef char* Address;
Address p = Address(0xA800);                    // same as above


// free store (new, delete, set_new_handler...)

main()                                            // simple example
{
    char* p = saveString("foobar");
    delete[]p;                                    // note new 2.0 delete syntax
}


char* saveString(const char* p)
{
    char* s = new
             char[strlen(p) + 1];
    strcpy(s, p);
    return s;
}



TFoo* aFoo = new TFoo;                            // create object in the free store (heap on MacOS)

#include <stream.h>
#include <new.h>

void OutofStore()
{
    cerr << "operator new failed : out of store\n";
    exit(1);
}


main()
{
    set_new_handler(&OutOfStore);                // give address to handler
    char* p = new
             char[100000000000];
    cout << "what, it works..., address = ",  long(p)<< '\n';
    // new returns 0 if it can't find enough memory - test for NULL
}





// STACK BASED OBJECTS
void func()
{
    TFoo aFoo;                                    // local -> placed on the stack
    aFoo.Beep();
}                                                // removed from stack automatically




// ? : CONDITIONAL EXPRESSION
max = (a <= b) ? b : a;


// LINKAGE TO NON-C++ CODE - no function name mangling
#ifdef __cplusplus
extern "C"
{
#endif

    pascal Handle NewHandle(Size byteCount)
#pragma parameter DisposHandle(__A0)
    pascal void DisposHandle(Handle h) = 0xA023;
#ifdef __cplusplus
}
#endif

extern "C"
{
    char* strcpy(char* ,
                 const char*);
    int strcmp(const char* ,
               const char*);
    // ...
}


extern "C"
{
#include "myCHeaderFiles.h"
}




// RECURSION
int fac(int n)
{
    return (n > 1) ? n * fac(n - 1) : 1;
}




// OVERLOADED FUNCTION NAMES
void print(int);                                // integer print
void print(const char*);                        // string print


// DEFAULT FUNCTION ARGUMENTS
void print(int value,
           int base = 10);
//...
print(30);                                        // will use base=10 inside print

void foo(int,
         char* ,
         int = 0,
         char*= 0);
// have to define defaults from right!



// UNSPEFIFIED AMOUNT OF FUNCTION ARGUMENT
int printf(const char ...);


// POINTERS TO FUNCTIONS
void error(char* p)
{
    /* ... */
}


void(* efunc)(char*);                            // pointer to function

void func()
{
    efunc = &error;                                // give address to function ptr
    (*efunc)("mayday");                            // call the function via ptr
}



typedef void(* PF)();

PF editOps[] = {                                // edit operations
                &cut, &paste, ©};

PF fileOps[] = {
                &new, &save, &close};

PF MenuEntry = editOps;
//...
(*MenuEntry[3])();                                // selected copy! trigger copy function


// MACROS
#define print(a,b)   cout << (a) << (b)        // argument usage
#define forever for(;;)
#define MIN(a,b)   (((a)<(b))?(a):(b))



// this POINTER
//always defined as X *const this; where X is the name of the class

class X
{
    int m;
public:
    int readm()
    {
        return this->m;
    }                                            // makes things more clear!




class dlink
{
    dlink* previous;
    dlink* successor;
public:
    void append(dlink*);
    // ...
};



void dlink::append(dlink* p)
{
    p->successor = successor;
    p->previous = this;
    successor->previous = p;
    successor = p;
}



dlink* listHead;
void func(dlink* a,
          dlink* b)
{
    // ...
    listHead->append(a);
    listHead->append(b);
}




// const MEMBER FUNCTIONS
class X
{
    int m;
public:
    readme() const
    {
        return m;
    }                                            // const member function, read-only


    writeme(int i)
    {
        m = i;
    }


};



// you are able to change a value through an explicit this cast:
class X
{
    int m;
public:
    // ...
    void implicitCheat() const
    {
        m++;
    }                                            // error!


    void explicitCheat() const
    {
        ((X *)this)->m++;
    }                                            // ok


};




// const CLASSES
void func(X& mutable,
          const X& constant)
{
    mutable.readme();                            // ok
    mutable.writeme(7);                            // ok
    constant.readme();                            // ok
    constant.writeme(7);                        // error
}




// CONSTRUCTORS
class TDate
{
    // ...
    TDate(int day,
          int month,
          long year);                            // constructor
    TDate(int month,
          long year);                            // other form
    TDate(long);                                // 910915, ANSI standard
    TDate();                                    // default today's date
    TDate(const char*);                            // string "Sun 15 Sept 1991"
    TDate(int d = 0,
          int m = 0,
          long year = 0);                        // default values
};


TDate today(15,
            9,
            1991);                                // stack based class
TDate tomorrow("Mon 16 Sept 1991");
TDate now;                                        // today's date
TDate d = today;                                // default copy constructor! bitwise copy

TDate::TDate(int d,
             int m,
             long y)                            // constructor function declaration
{
    // ...
}




// DESTRUCTORS
class TStack
{
    int size;
    char* top;
    char* s;
public:
    TStack(int sz)
    {
        top = s = new
                 char[size = sz];
    }


    ~TStack()
    {
        delete[]s;
    }                                            // destructor


    void push(char c)
    {
        *top++ = c;
    }


    void pop()
    {
        return *--top;
    }


};


void func()
{
    TStack s1(100);
    TStack s2(200);
    s1.push('a');
    s2.push('b');
    char ch = s2.pop();
    cout << ch << '\n';
}                                                // automatic call of destructor





// inline CALLS - (see ARM 102 and TN307 for more info when compiler will not inline
class TFoo
{
public:
    void func1()
    {
        /*...*/
    }                                            // this code is inlined


    void func2();
};


inline void TFoo::func2()
{
    // this code is inlined
    // ...
}




// friend USE
class x
{
    friend class y;                                // class y has access to x's private parts
    // ...
};


class x
{
    friend void y::f();                            // y::f() member function has access to
    //...                        // x's private parts
};




// CLASS MEMBER NAME QUALIFICATION
class X
{
    int m;
public:
    int getm() const
    {
        return m;
    }


    void setm(int m)
    {
        X::m = m;
    }                                            // name qualification


};


class TFile()
{
    // ...
    int open(const char* ,
             const char*);
}


;

int TFile::open(const char* name,
                const char* spec)
{
    // ...
    if (::open(name, flag))
    {
        // stdclib open called
        // ...
    }
    // ...
}




// NESTED CLASSES
class TSet
{
    struct setmem
    {
        int mem;
        setmem* next;
        setmem(int m,
               setmem* n)
        {
            mem = m;
            next = n;
        }


    };


    setmem* first;                                // nested class struct
public:
    TSet()
    {
        first = NULL;
    }


    insert()
    {
        first = new setmem(m, first);
    }
    // ...

};




// nicer with friends:
class TSetmem
{
    friend class TSet;                            // access to members of TSet only
    int mem;
    setmem* next;
    setmem(int m,
           setmem* n)
    {
        mem = m,  next = n;
    }
    // other useful members

};


class TSet
{
    setmem* first;
public:
    TSet()
    {
        first = NULL;
    }


    insert(int m)
    {
        first = new setmem(m, first);
    }
    // ...

};


class X
{                                                // name scoping
private:
    struct M1
    {
        int m;
    }
    public:
    struct M2
    {
        int m;
    } M1 f(M2);                                    // member function
};


void func()
{
    M1 a;                                        // error, 'M1' not in scope
    M2 b;                                        // ok
    X::M1 c;                                    // error, 'M1' private
    X::M2 d;                                    // ok
}




// static CLASS MEMBERS
class TTask
{
public:
    // ...
    static TTask* chain;                        // static field, one copy of the TTask only
    static void Schedule();                        // static member function
    // ...
};



TTask* TTask::chain = NULL;
void TTask::Schedule()
{
    /* ....*/
}


;

....
if(TTask::chain == NULL)                        // must be qualified by class name
{
    // do something
}

TTask::Schedule();                                // call the static member function


// POINTERS TO MEMBER FUNCTIONS
typedef long(TFoo::* Function)();
enum eGenerator
{
    SIMPLE, PRACTICAL, COMPLEX
};



class TFoo
{
private:
    Function fGenerator;                        // pointer to Generate function
    int fVal;
public:
    TFoo(eGenerator);
    long Simple()
    {
        return 2;
    }


    long Practical()
    {
        return 4;
    }


    ;
    long Complex()
    {
        return 6;
    }


    long Generate()
    {
        return this->*fGenerator();
    }                                            // use the function fGenerator is pointing at


};



TFoo::TFoo(eGenerator theGenerator)
{
    switch(theGenerator)                        // set pointer to defined function
    {
        case SIMPLE:
            this->fGenerator = &TFoo:Simple;
            break;
        case PRACTICAL:
            this->fGenerator = &TFoo::Practical;
            break;
        case COMPLEX:
            this->fGenerator = &TFoo:Complex;
    }
}





// CLASS OBJECTS AS MEMBERS
class TClassDef
{
    table members;
    int numMembers;
    // ...
    TClassDef(int size);
    ~TClassDef();
};



TClassDef::TClassDef(int size) :
    members(size)                                // pass information for init
{
    numMembers = size;
    // ...
}


// ARRAYS OF CLASS OBJECTS
TTable tbl[10];                                    // will generate an array of 10 TTable objects


// new/delete OPERATOR OVERLOADING
class TName
{
public:
    char* string;
    TName* next;
    double value;

    TName(char* ,
          double name*);
    ~TName();

    void* operatornew(size_t);
    void operatordelete(void* ,
                        size_t);
private:
    enum
    {
        N_ALL = 128
    };


    static name* nfree;
};



void* TName::operatornew(size_t)
{
    register TName* p = nfree;                    // first allocate

    if (p)
        nfree = p->next;
    else
    {
        TName * q = (TName *)new
                   char[N_ALL * sizeof(name)];
        for (p = nfree = &q[N_ALL - 1]; q < p; p--)
            p->next = p - 1;
        p->next = NULL;
    }
    return p;
}



void TName::operatordelete(void* p,
                           size_t)
{
    ((TName *)p)->next = nfree;
    nfree = (TName *)p;
}

//....
* TName::nfree = 0;                                // explicit initialization of the value



// DERIVED CLASSES
class TEmployee
{
private:
    char* name;
    short age;
    short department;
public:
    TEmployee();
    print() const
    {
        /*...*/
    }


    TEmployee* next;
}

class TManager : public TEmployee
{
    TEmployee* group;
    short level;
public:
    TManager();
    print() const
    {
        /*...*/
    }


};


void TEmployee::print()
{
    cout << "Employee information...\n";
}


void TManager::print()
{
    TEmployee::print();                            // print employee information
    cout << "Manager information...\n";
}


void func()
{
    TManager m1,  m2;
    TEmployee e1,  e2;
    TEmployee * elist;

    elist = &m1;                                // put m1 on elist
    m1.next = &e2;                                // put e1 on elist
    e1.next = &m2;
    m2.next = &e2;
    e2.next = NULL;                                // last in the elist
}


    void g()
    {
        TManager MM;
        Temployee * pe = &MM;                    // ok

        TEmployee ee;
        manager * PM = ⅇ                        // error, not every TEmployee is a TManager

        PM->level = 2;                            // won't work, no space for level

        PM = (TManager *)pe;                    // ok
        PM->level = 2;                            // ok
    }




// DERIVED CONSTRUCTORS & DESTRUCTORS
// class objects are constructed from the bottom up, first the base,
// then the members, then the derived class itself. They are destroyed
// in the opposite order

class TEmployee
{
    // ...
public:
    TEmployee(char* n,
              int d);
};


class TManager:: public TEmployee
{
    // ....
public:TManager(char* n, int l, int d);
}


;

TEmployee::TEmployee(char* n,
                     int d) :
    name(n),
    department(d)
{
    next = list;
    list = this;
}

TManager::TManager(char* n,
                   int l,
                   int d) :
    TEmployee(n, d),
    level(l),
    group(0)
{
    //...
}


// CLASS HIERARCHIES
class TEmployee { /* .... */ };
class TManager: public TEmployee {/* .... */};
class TDirector: public TManager {'* .... */};
class TTemporary {/* ....*/};


// MULTIPLE INHERITANCE
class TConsultant: public TManager, public TTemporary {/* .... */};

class TTask
{
    //
    virtual info* debug();
};



class TDisplayed
{
    // ...
    virtual info* debug();
};




class TSatellite : public TTask, public TDisplayed
{
    // ...
};



void func(TSatellite& s)                        // ambiguity with member function names
{
    s.draw();                                    // TDisplayed::draw()
    s.delay(10);                                // TTask::delay(int x);
    s.xmit();                                    // TSatellite::Xmit()

    info * d_info = s.debug;                    // ambiguity problems!
    d_info = s.TTask::debug();                    // ok
    d_info = s.TDisplayed::debug()                // ok

            // with pointers, TSatellite *s
            d_info = s->TTask::debug();
    d_info = s->TDisplayed::debug();
}



// better to define new member functions inside TSatellite!
class TSatellite : public TTask, public TDisplayed
{
    // ...

    info* satelliteDebug()
    {
        info * d1 = TTask::debug();
        info * d2 = TDisplayed::debug();
        return d1.merge(d2);
    }


};




// VIRTUAL FUNCTIONS
class TEmployee
{
    char* name;
    short department;
    // ...
    TEmployee* next;
    static TEmployee* list;
public:
    TEmployee(char* n,
              int d);
    // ..
    static void printList();
    virtual void print() const;                    // virtual function, can be
};                                                // overridden



....
void TEmployee::print() const
{
    cout << name << '\t' << department << '\n';
    // ...
}



class TManager:: public TEmployee
{
    TEmployee * group;
    short level;
    // ...
public:TManager(char* n, int l, int d);
    // ...
    void print const();                            // we could override this - virtual
}


;

....
void TManager::print() const
{
    cout << level << '\n';
    //...
}




// ABSTRACT CLASSES - PURE VIRTUAL FUNCTIONS
class TShape
{                                                // has pure virtual function = abstract class
    // ...
public:
    virtual void rotate(int x) = 0;                // pure virtual function
};


class TMyShape
{
    // ...
public:
    virtual void rotate(int x)
    {
        /* ... */
    }                                            // have to create this member function


};



...
TShape aShape;                                    // error!
TMyShape anotherShape;                            // ok


// virtual base classes

class TWindow
{
    // window information
    void _Draw();                                // internal window draw
    virtual void Draw()
    {
        _Draw();
    }                                            // calls by default _Draw()


};



class TWindowBorder : public virtual TWindow
{
    // border information
    void _Draw();                                // draw border
    void Draw();
};



class TWindowMenu : public virtual TWindow
{
    // menu information
    void _Draw();                                // draw menu
    void Draw();
};


class TWindowBorderMenu : public virtual TWindow, public TWindowBorder, public TWindowMenu
{
    // ...
    void _Draw();                                // draw specific stuff
    void Draw();
};



// every class defined virtual base class will be represented by a *single*
// object of that class.
void TWindowBorder::Draw()
{
    TWindow::Draw();
    _Draw();                                    // draw the border
}


void TWindowMenu::Draw()
{
    TWindow::Draw();
    _Draw();                                    // draw the menu
}


void TWindowBorderMenu::Draw()
{
    TWindow::Draw();
    TWindowBorder::Draw();
    TWindowMenu::Draw();
    _Draw();                                    // draw specific stuff
}




// ACCESS CONTROL
// private (class only), protected (shareable by inheritance),
// public (open)
class X
{
private:                                        // no definition = private
    enum
    {
        A, B
    };


    void f(int x);
    int a;
};


void X::f(int x)
{
    if (x < A)
        f(x + B);
    a++;
}


void g(X& x)
{
    int i = X::A;                                // error, X::A is private
    x.f(2);                                        // error, X::f() is private
    x.a++;                                        // error X::a is private
}


// PROTECTED MEMBERS
class X
{
    // private by default
    int priv;
protected:
    int prot;
public:
    int publ;
    void m();
};


void X::m()
{
    priv = 1;                                    // ok
    prot = 2;                                    // ok
    publ = 3;                                    // ok
}


class Y : public X
{
    void mDerived();
};


void Y::mDerived()
{
    priv = 1;                                    // error, priv is private inside X
    prot = 2;                                    // ok, inherited
    publ = 3;                                    // ok, public class
}


void f(Y* p)
{
    p->priv = 1;                                // error, priv is private
    p->prot = 2;                                // error, prot is protected, and no inheritance
    p->publ = 3;                                // ok, public class
}




// ACCESS TO BASE CLASS
class X
{
public:
    int a;
    // ...
};


class Y1 : public X
{                                                /*...*/
} class Y2 : protected X
{                                                /* ... */
} class Y3 : private X
{                                                /* ... */
}                                                // private default

void f(Y1* p1,
       Y2* p2,
       Y3* p3)
{
    X * q1 = p1;                                // ok, X is a public base class of Y1
    p1->a = 7;                                    // ok, internal reference to private field
    q1 = p2;                                    // error, X is a protected base of Y2
    p2->a = 7;                                    // error,
    q1 = p3;                                    // error, X is a private base of Y3
    p3->a = 7;                                    // error
}




// VIRTUAL DESTRUCTORS
class TFoo
{
public:
    TFoo();                                        // constructor
    virtual~ TFoo();                            // virtual destructor
    // ...
};



// this makes it possible for the compiler to keep track of each destructor
// and the ordering. Most destructors should be virtual!



// new - PLACEMENT OPERATOR
class X
{
    // ...
public:
    X(int);
};



void* operatornew(size_t,
                  void* p)
{
    return p;
}



char buffer[sizeof(X)];

void f(int i)
{
    X * p = new(buffer)X(i);                    // place X in buffer!
    // ...
}



class TArena
{
    // ...
    virtual void* alloc(size_t) = 0;
    virtual void free(void) = 0;
};


void* operatornew(size_t,
                  sz,
                  Arena* a)
{
    return a.alloc(size);
}


...
extern Arena* Persistent;
extern Arena* Shared;

void g(int i)
{
    X * p = new(Persistent)X(i);                // X in persistent storage
    X * q = new(Shared)X(i);                    // X in shared memory
    // ...
}




void h(X* p)
{
    p->~X();                                    // call destructor
    Persistent->free(p);                        // free actual memory
}




// OPERATOR OVERLOADING
class TComplex
{                                                // class definition
    double re, im;
public:
    TComplex(double r,
             double i = 0)
    {
        re = r,  im = i;
    }


    friend complex operator+(TComplex,
                             TComplex);
    friend complex operator*(TComplex,
                             TComplex);

    TComplex& operator+=(TComplex);
    TComplex& operator-=(TComplex);
};



inline TComplex& TComplex::operator+=(TComplex a)
{
    re += a.re;
    im += a.im;
    return this;
}


inline TComplex operator+(TComplex a,
                          TComplex b)
{
    return TComplex(a.re + b.re, a.im + b.im);
}




void f()                                        // usage
{
    complex a = complex(1, 3.1);
    complex b = complex(1.2, 2);
    complex c = b;

    a = b + c;
    b = b + c * a;
    c = a * b + complex(1, 2);

    complex d = operator+(a, b);                // explicit call
    complex e = 23;                                // takes default i value
}




// CONVERSION OPERATORS
class TTiny
{
    char v;
    void assign(int i)
    {
        if (i > 63)
        {
            error("range error");
            v = i &~63;
        }
        v = i;
    }


public:
    TTiny(int i)
    {
        assign(i);
    }


    TTiny(const TTiny& t)
    {
        v = t.v;
    }


    TTiny& operator=(const TTiny& t)
    {
        v = t.v;
        return *this;
    }


    TTiny& operator=(int i)
    {
        assign(i);
        return *this;
    }


    operator int()
    {
        return v;
    }                                            // conversion operator!


};


void main()
{
    TTiny c1 = 2;
    TTiny c2 = 62;
    TTiny c3 = c2 - c1;                            // c3 = 60
    TTiny c4 = c3;                                // no range check, not necessary
    int i = c1 + c2;                            // i = 64
    c1 = c2 + 2 * c1;                            // c1 = 2
    c2 = c1 - i;                                // c2 = 2
    c3 = c2;                                    // no range check, not necessary
}




// COPY CONSTRUCTORS
class TString
{
    char* p;
    int size;                                    // of vector pointed to by p

    TString(int sz)
    {
        p = new
           char[size = sz];
    }


    ~TString()
    {
        delete[]p;
    }


    TString& operator=(const TString&);
    TString(const TString&);                    // copy constructor!
};



TString::TString(const TString& a)                // (if not defined, bitwise copy generated by compiler
{
    p = new
       char[size = a.size];
    strcpy(p, a.p);
}


TString& TString::operator=(const TString& a)
{
    if (this != &a)
    {
        delete[]p;
        p = new
           char[size = a.size];
        strcpy(p, a.p);
    }
    return *this;
}


void f()
{
    TString s1(10);
    TString s2 = s1;                            // initialization, not assignment
}



// MEMBERVISE INITIALIZATION
class TString
{
public:
    TString(const TString& s)
    //
private:
    short len;
    char str[255];
};


TString(const TString&)
{
    this->len = s.len;
    this->str = s.str;
}

//...
TString foo = bar;


// subscripting  - operator [] overload

#include <string.h>

class TAssoc
{
    struct pair
    {
        char* name;
        int val;
    };


    pair* vector;
    int max;
    int nfree;

    TAssoc(const& TAssoc&);                        // prevent copying
    TAssoc& operator=(const TAssoc&);            // prevent assignment
public:
    TAssoc(int);
    int& operator[](const char*);                // operator [] overload
    void PrintAll();
};


TAssoc::TAssoc(int s)
{
    max = (s < 16) ? s : 16;
    nfree = 0;
    vector = new pair[max];
}



int& TAssoc::operator[](const char* p)
// maintain a set of pairs, search for p, return a reference to the
// integer part of its "pair",, make a new "pair" if "p" has not been seen

    register pair* pp;

    for(pp = vector + free - 1 ; vector <= pp; pp--)
        if( strcmp(p,pp->name) == 0 ) return pp->val;

    if(nfree == max){        // overflow, grow the vector
        pair* newvec = new pair[max*2];
        for(int i=0; i < max; i++)
            newvec[i] = vector[i];
        delete [] vector;
        vector = newvector;
        max = 2*max;
    }

    pp = &vector[nfree++];
    pp->name = new char[strlen(p) + 1];
    strcpy(pp->name, p);
    pp->val = 0;            // initial value
    return pp->val;
}

void TAssoc::PrintAll()
{
    for (int i = 0; i < nfree; i++)
        cout << vector[i].name << ": " << vector[i].val << "\n";
}



main()
{
    const MAX = 256;
    char buf[MAX];

    TAssoc aVector(512);
    while (cin >> buf)
        aVector[buf]++;
    aVector.PrintAll();
}





// FUNCTION CALL OVERLOAD
class TAssoc
{
    friend class TAssocIterator;
    pair* vec;
    int max;
    int free;
public:
    TAssoc(int);
    int& operator[](const char*);
};



class TAssocIterator
{
    TAssoc* cs;                                    // current TAssoc array
    int i;                                        // current index
public:
    TAssocIterator(const TAssoc& s)
    {
        cs = &s;
        i = 0;
    }


    pair* operator()()                            // function call operator overload
    {
        return (i < cs->free) ? &cs->vec[i++] : NULL;
    }


};



main()                                            // count the occurrences of each word on input
{
    const MAX = 256;
    char buf[MAX];
    TAssoc aVector(256);

    while (cin >> buf)
        aVector[buf]++;
    TAssocIterator next(aVector);
    pair * p;

    while (p = next())
        cout << p->name << ": " << p->val << '\n';
}




// DEREFERENCING OPERATOR (->)
class TPtr
{
    // ...
    X* operator->();                            // class X
};


void f(TPtr p)                                    // usage
{
    p->m = 7;                                    // (p.operator->())->m =  7;
}



// SMART POINTERS
class TRecPtr
{
    Rec* inCoreAddress;
    const char* ID;
    // ...
public:
    TRecPtr(const char* p) :
        identifier(p)
    {
        inCoreAddress = NULL;
    }
    ~TRecPtr()
    {
        WriteToDisk(inCoreAddress, ID);
    }


    Rec* operator->();
};



Rec* TRecPtr::operator->()
{
    if (inCoreAddress == NULL)
        inCoreAddress = ReadFromDisk(ID);
    return inCoreAddress;
}


main(int argc,
     const char* argv)                            // usage
{
    for (int i = argc; i; i--)
    {
        TRecPtr p(argv[i]);
        p->update();
    }
}




// INCREMENT/DECREMENT OPERATOR OVERLOADING
class TCheckedPtrToT
{
    T* p;
    T* array;
    int size;
public:
    // bind to array 'a' of size 's' initial value 'p'
    TCheckedPtrToT(T* p,
                   T* a,
                   int s);

    // bind to single objec initial value 'p'
    TCheckedPtrToT(T* p);

    T* operator++();                            // prefix
    T* operator++(int);                            // postfix - works from Cfront 3.0 forward

    T* operator--();                            // prefix
    T* operator--(int);                            // postfix - works from Cfront 3.0 forward

    T& operator*();                                // prefix
};



void func(T a)                                    // example of use
{
    T v[200];
    TCheckedPtrToT p(&v[0], v, 200);            // create object
    p.operator--(1);
    p.operator*() = a;                            // runtime error, 'p' out of range
    p.operator++();
    p.operator*() = a;                            // ok
}




// STRING CLASS IMPLEMENTATION
#include <iostream.h>
#include <string.h>

class TString
{
    struct srep
    {
        char* s;                                // pointer to data
        int n;                                    // reference count
        srep()
        {
            n = 1;
        }


    };


    srep* p;

public:
    TString(const char*);                        // TString x = "abc";
    TString();                                    // TString x;
    TString(const TString&);                    // TString x = TString ...
    TString& operator=(const char*);
    TString& operator=(const TString&);
    ~TString();
    char& operator[](int i);

    friend ostream& operator<<(ostream& ,
                               const TString&);
    friend istream& operator>>(istream& ,
                               TString&);

    friend int operator==(const TString& x,
                          const char* s)
    {
        return strcmp(x.p->s, s) == 0;
    }


    friend int operator==(const TString& x,
                          const TString& y)
    {
        return strcmp(x.p->s, y.p->s) == 0;
    }


    friend int operator!=(const TString& x,
                          const char* s)
    {
        return strcmp(x.p->s, s) != 0;
    }


    friend int operator!=(const TString& x,
                          const Tstring& y)
    {
        return strcmp(x.p->s, y.p->s) != 0;
    }


};



TString::TString()                                // constructor
{
    p = new srep;
    p->s = NULL;
}


TString::TString(const TString& x)                // copy constructor
{
    x.p->n++;
    p = x.p;
}


TString::TString(const char* s)
{
    p = new srep;
    p->s = new
          char[strlen(s) + 1];
    strcpy(p->s, s);
}



TString::~TString()
{
    if (--p->n == 0)
    {
        delete[]p->s;
        delete p;
    }
}




TString& TString::operator=(const char* s)
{
    if (p->n > 1)
    {
        // disconnect self
        p->n--;
        p = new srep;
    }
    else                                        // free old string
        delete[]p->s;

    p->s = new
          char[strlen(s) + 1];
    strcpy(p->s, s);
    return *this;
}


TString& TString::operator=(const TString& x)
{
    x.p->n++;                                    // protect against 'st = st'
    if (--p->n == 0)
    {
        delete[]p - s;
        delete p;
    }
    p = x.p;
    return *this;
}




ostream& operator<<(ostream& s,
                    const TString& x)
{
    return s << x.p->s << " [" << x.p->n << "]\n";
}


istream& operator>>(istream& s,
                    TString& x)
{
    char buf[256];
    s.get(buf, 256);
    char c;
    if (s.get(c) && c != '\n')
    {
        // buffer overflow, line longer than buffer
    }

    x = buf;
    cout << "echo: " << x << '\n';
    return s;
}


void error(const char* p)
{
    cerr << p << '\n';
    exit(1);
}




char& TString::operator[](int i)
{
    if (i < 0 || strlen(p->s) < i)
        error("index out of range");
    return p->s[i];
}




int main()                                        // example of usage
{
    TString x[100];

    cout << "here we go!\n";

    for (int n = 0; cin > x[n]; n++)
    {
        if (n == 100)
        {
            error("too many strings");
            return 99;
        }

        TString y;
        cout << (y = x[n]);
        if (y == "done")
            break;
    }

    cout << "here we go back again!\n";
    for (int i = n - 1; 0 <= i; i--)
        cout << x[i];

    return 0;
}




// CASTING OF CLASS
class TBase { ... } b;
class Tdpriv : private TBase { ... } dv;
class Tdpub  : public  TBase { ... } db;
foo(TBase b) { ... }

foo(b);            // legal
foo(db);        // legal
foo(dv);        // NOT legal!!
foo((TBase)dv);    // legal


// ACCESS CONTROL ADJUSTMENT
class TBase
{
public:
    virtual void func(void)
    {
    }
    ;
};


class derived1 : private TBase
{
public:
    TBase::func;
};





class derived2 : private derived1
{
public:
    void func(void)
    {
    }
    ;
};


main()
{
    derived2 * foo = new derived2;
    return 0;
}




// MORE ESOTERIC TRICKS


// PASSING VARIABLE ARGUMENTS TO CONSTRUCTOR
#include <stdarg.h>

class TBase {  ... TBase(int); Init(va_list); ... };

class TDerived : public TBase { ... TDerived(int, ...); ... };

TDerived::TDerived(int i,
                   ...) :
    TBase(i)
{
    va_list ap;
    va_start(ap, i);
    Init(ap);
    va_end(ap);
}